History of the Cossacks

The process of emergence of Zaporizhzhya Cossacks is the result of complex cultural, domestic, political and social processes that took place on the territory of Eastern Europe on the border of the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the New Age, which has its roots in the times of Kyivan Rus.

The word "Cossack" has, according to most researchers, a Turkic origin. The word itself has many meanings, but it massively penetrated the territory of Kyivan Rus as a result of active cultural exchange with the word by the Polovtsy. Among the Polovtsy, it meant a guard, which later became the basis of the functions of the future Zaporozhye Sich under Dmytro Ivanovich Vyshnevetskyi, better known as Bayda.
After the foundation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich , the word "Cossack" meant - Free man.

History of Zaporozhian Cossacks

In the summer of 965, Prince Svyatoslav Ihorovych of Kyiv made a campaign against the Khazar Khaganate. By that time, the Kiev princes had already repeatedly carried out campaigns against the Khazars with the aim of weakening their influence in the Black Sea region and strengthening their control over the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks". However, Svyatoslav approached the solution of this task more radically. He decided to completely eliminate the Khazar Khaganate. As a result of a difficult military campaign, the Khazar army was defeated and Svyatoslav's wife took the Khazar capital, Sarkel. The city itself was a serious fortress, but it was poorly prepared for defense. Having assessed the advantageous location of the city, the White House fortress was founded there. Also, as a result of this campaign, the lands of the former Bosporus kingdom came under the power of Svyatoslav. Among them was the city of Tmutarakan, taking into account which the Tmutarakan Principality was founded. It is also noteworthy that during Svyatoslav's campaign, the North Caucasian Circassians and Kasogs fell in love with their appearance and youth. He changed his appearance to their manner and most Byzantine sources describe him with a long moustache, shaved head and forelock. The Grand Duke can be considered one of the founders of Cossack fashion on the territory of Kievan Rus.

In 969, the Khazar Khaganate finally disintegrated. Using this at the mouth of the Dnieper, the Oleshshe fortress was founded. Meanwhile, the vacuum created after the Khazar Khaganate is filled by the Pechenegs. White House, Oleshshe and Tmutarakan are used as strongholds in the fight against them and to control trade routes. Small fortified settlements appear around them, especially many of them are located along the entire course of the Dnieper. They become distant harbingers of Cossack settlements.

In 1055, the Polovtsy invaded the Black Sea steppe, displacing the weakened Pechenegs and destroying the White House on the way. Despite the peaceful first contact, a difficult relationship begins with her. Until the end of the 11th century, there were continuous Polovtsian campaigns on the territory of Kyivan Rus. In addition, the Polovtsy took an active part in the internecine wars of the princes. Therefore, there is a cultural exchange. It was with the arrival of the Polovtsy that the word Cossack entered Russia.

To defend the southern borders of Kievan Rus from the Polovtsy, reinforcements and settlements from the allied Turks, known as "black hoods", are organized. Settlements on the Dnipro are equipped with them. In fact, they were heralds of the Cossacks, who carried out border service along the entire southern border of Kievan Rus. They got their name from the black caps, which will become the main headdresses of the Cossacks.

In parallel with the arrival of the Polovtsy, Kyivan Rus enters a period of turbulent socio-political situation and the beginning of economic decline, caused by the beginning of the process of fragmentation into principalities. The Tmutarakan principality recognizes the power of Byzantium. Wanderers, who became the prototype of the Cossacks, begin to form. Initially, they were fugitives and refugees from various social strata of Kyivan Rus, but later they became one of the main forces in the territory of the Dnieper, Black Sea and Don lowlands. As early as 1159, they captured Oleshshe and only the campaign of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Rostislav Mstislavovych brought it back under the control of Kyiv. Over time, vagabonds occupy the niche of merchants and navigate the Dnieper. In addition, they became monopolists in salt production and began to provide military aid to princes, including Yaroslav the Wise himself. Also, due to their activities, the vagabonds had close ties with the Polovtsians and the Black Hats, actively absorbing their culture and assimilating them, forming an ethnically mixed population.

In 1222, the Mongols invaded the eastern possessions of the Polovtsy. Realizing the threat, Polovtsian Khan Kotyan turns to his son-in-law Mstislav Mstislavovich Udaly and a number of other princes for help.

The princes respond to the call. However, the vagabonds sided with the Mongols led by Jebe-Noyon and Subedei in the Battle of Kalka in 1223. This decision played an important role. During the Mongol invasion, the vagabonds were not harmed, Genghis Khan gave them guarantees of a safe existence.

Here, the allied attitude of the Mongols played a role, as well as the fact that the vagabonds lived in hard-to-reach and uninteresting places for nomads: islands, marshes, swamps. Moreover, during the reign of the Golden Horde, the vagabonds received trade privileges, occupied all key crossings and roads, and provided military contingents for their troops. Among them, they took part in the western campaign of the Tatar-Mongols. They were only required to keep roads and crossings in good condition. It should be noted that direct written references to vagabonds disappear after the 13th century, but mentions of Slavic settlements in the lower reaches of the Dnieper are regularly found.
A very important detail was the fact that sometimes the Mongols themselves resettled part of the peasants from the principalities to fertile lands, giving them benefits and protecting them from oppression, demanding part of the harvest in return. For example, a large settlement was again organized on the site of the Oleshe fortress, which fell into disrepair with the arrival of the Mongols. All this created a solid foundation for the formation of the Cossacks.

The era of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

During this period, the territories of the former Kyivan Rus, or rather its southwestern part, were gradually annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. Concerned about the confrontation with the Golden Horde, the Lithuanians begin to restore the former border fortifications of the times of Kyivan Rus. The basis of the border contingents began to consist of vagrants who had joined the service of the Lithuanians, local boyars, nobles, and free people familiar with military craft. Also in the 14th century, "hudniks" appeared: people who went hunting in the steppe, called the Wild Field, in the summer and returned home for the winter. Their basis was free peasants, townspeople, nobles and boyars. Later, some of them settled on the territory of the Dnieper rapids and islands. The center of this movement was Kaniv and Cherkasy.

With the collapse of the Golden Horde in 1483, new khanates were formed, which began a struggle for power among themselves. As a result, the general decline of the entire infrastructure created during the time of the Golden Horde begins. Having lost their sources of income, former vagabonds and migrants begin to gather in detachments with the aim of attacking Tatar settlements. Although there are also examples of continued peaceful existence on the territory of the same Olessia. A Cossack state is being formed.

This movement fueled the social crisis that began in European countries at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, due to the decline of the knighthood. This was especially felt near Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In addition to the already mentioned "care" at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, the process of legal confirmation of noble origin was underway in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Very quickly, part of the service boyars lost their social, legal and economic base. Among them were Tatar settlers, who were referred to in documents as "Tatar-Cossacks". In addition, there was a process of destruction of the small nobility and the purchase of their land plots by magnates. The greatest social upheaval occurred after the liquidation of the Grand Duchy of Kyiv in 1471, where the boyars formed the basis of the military contingent. Losing their land allotments, most of them began to join the herdsmen or go to the steppe altogether. There, they were helped to adjust their lives by military skills, which were used in campaigns against Tatar settlements. Similar processes took place in Poland, albeit in a milder form.

Changes also affected peasants and townspeople. The majority of peasants underwent the process of consolidation, escape to the steppe was a rarity. Citizens of the border areas, on the contrary, increasingly went to the steppe for fishing in order to feed their families. Getting into the steppe itself, the deserters had to face the Tatars first of all. In order to oppose them, they united in gangs, usually led by people from the service boyars or the nobility, who rarely already had extensive experience in caring for townspeople. Such leaders were called "otamans". In addition to trade, they engaged in raids on Tatar villages. Sometimes they came across Tatar trade caravans or herds, which promised great production. At this stage, we can talk about the full-fledged creation of the Cossack state. It should be noted that later part of the Cossacks went back and became urban Cossacks, becoming the nucleus for the formation of the future registered Cossacks. And those that remained in the steppe will become the basis for the creation of Zaporizhzhya Sich.

As a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde, a part of the Tatars who did not find a place in the changed situation joined the Cossacks. As a rule, these were soldiers who did not like the conditions of service in states that were persecuted by the nobility or lost their sources of income to pastoralists. They joined their colleagues from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. Considering the fact that there were fewer of them, they dissolved in the main mass, bringing elements of their daily life.
In addition to the listed social strata, it should be noted that adventurers, bankrupt merchants and artisans, criminals and a small number of runaway peasants joined the Cossacks.
The national composition was also diverse. In addition to representatives of the peoples of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland, and the Crimean Khanate, there were also Hungarians, Czechs, Croats, and even people from the Caucasus. There were quite a lot of Moldavians, who had long-standing ties with the steppe settlers from the time of Kievan Rus and vagabonds who participated in the movement.

Starting from the second half of the 15th century, Cossack units began mass raids on Tatar nomads and settlements, robbed caravans, took livestock and caused a lot of problems. Seeing the nascent power, the nobles and rulers, primarily from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, tried to put them at their service in the framework of the defense of the southern borders from the Tatars and the additional increase of their armies.
In 1489, during the campaign of the Polish king Jan Alberecht, Polish sources mention Christian Cossacks who acted as guides. From this one can come to the disappointing conclusion about the predominance of the Slavic ethnic group among the Cossacks in the presence of representatives of the Turkic peoples. In the same year, led by chieftains Vasyl Zhila, Bohdan and Golubets, they attacked the Tavan crossing in the lower reaches of the Dnieper. Having defeated the Tatar guard, they robbed the merchants and took away the cattle.
A significant role in this was played by Bohdan Fedorovych Glinskyi, also known as the Cossack Mamai. In 1488, he was appointed by Grand Duke Casimir of Lithuania as the governor of Cherkassy to strengthen the defense of the southern borders of the Great Patriotic War. As already mentioned, Kaniv and Cherkasy were the heart of the Cossack movement at that time. Quickly realizing all the potential that was in the territories under his control, he immediately began the creation of armed units. These units are mentioned in official documents at the time as "Cossacks". Under his leadership, in 1492, these units marched on Tyagina, capturing a Tatar ship along the way.

In 1495, Glinsky himself was appointed the governor of Putivl to strengthen the defense against Muscovy, but on August 4, 1500, Putivl was taken by Muscovite troops. The former Cossack chieftain himself was captured, where he died.
Despite the fact that the Cossacks lost their great chieftain, their campaigns became increasingly massive and regular. In 1502 and 1503, the Crimean khan again complained about the Cossacks, mentioning the "Kiev Cossacks". This indicates the rapid growth of this condition.
It should be noted that the Cossacks were not only at war with the Tatars. There is also evidence that they served them. Thus, Crimean sources of the second half of the 15th century mention hired Cossacks, who mainly performed guard and convoy duty in Cafe and other Genoese colonies, continuing their service after the cities came under the control of the Tatars.

A very important role was played both in the creation of Zaporizhzhya Sich and in the formation of the Cossack state by the "stream defense" project, which operated during the years 1480-1562. It was a Polish initiative. The project itself ceased to create a mercenary army for the defense of the southeastern borders from Tatar raids. With time and the growing mutual integration of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, it replaced the old Lithuanian program for the defense of the southern borders. Glynskyi acted within its limits.

Ostap Dashkevich replaced Glynskyi as Kaniv and Cherkasy starosts. He began to centrally organize Cossack units. His main achievement was the increase in the number of Cossacks. Chygyrin was chosen as the center. There was organized an arsenal and winter quarters for the troops. In addition, Dashkevich carried out a military reform: the Cossacks were rearmed from bows to muskets, a regimental system of organization was established, and discipline increased. Thus, three large detachments were created in Cherkasy, Kanev and Chigyrin, in the future, the first regiments of registered Cossacks will be formed on their basis. Dashkevich was the first to propose in 1533 to organize a fortified outpost on the Dnieper to counter Tatar raids, but the idea was not implemented. However, at the most important crossings, tree-earth fortifications were organized on his initiative - the first Sich. Seagulls began to be built on the Sich — for navigating the Dnieper. In some documents dated 1508, Dashkevich is mentioned as the hetman of the Zaporizhzhya Army, in the same year he led the Cossacks and defeated the Crimean Tatars. Undoubtedly, he was the first basket chieftain.

The head of Khmilnik Predslav Liantskoronskyi, known as Lyakh Serdechnyi, joined Dashkevich's activities. In his youth, Predslav visited Europe, Asia Minor and Jerusalem, studying military art. He was married to the daughter of Prince Konstantin Ostrozky. At the request of the Polish king Sigismund I the Old, in 1516 he gathered a Cossack army and defeated the Tatars near Akkerman. In the same year, he led an army of Cossacks and nobles, defeating the Tatars who were returning from a campaign in Muscovy. Together with Dashkevich, he organized campaigns against the Tatars, the largest of which was the attack on Ochakiv. He was appointed captain of the Cossack cavalry. In 1520, he became the head of Khmelnyk. He fought with the Tatars until the end of his life. In some sources, Liantskoronskyi is mentioned as the first hetman of the grassroots Zaporozhian army.

Undoubtedly, Ostap Dashkevich and Predslav Liantskoronsky can be considered the founding fathers of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. They laid a solid foundation and strengthened the Cossacks. The culmination of their efforts was the creation of Zaporizhzhya Sich by Dmytro Ivanovich Vyshnevetskyi.

Creation of Zaporizhzhya Sich

Vyshnevetsky himself came from the ancient and noble Orthodox noble family of Vyshnevetsky, owned large lands in the Kremenets county, was the Kaniv and Cherkasy starosta from 1551, therefore he was the host of the chieftain of the Mamai Cossacks. His brother Mykhailo Ivanovich Vyshnevetskyi owned huge ancestral lands on the territory of modern Poltava region, which were called Vyshnevechyna. All these territories bordered the Wild Field and were regularly attacked by the Tatars. Even their father, Ivan Mykhailovych, took an active part in strengthening the borders, mainly pursuing the goal of ensuring the protection of his possessions. It is not surprising that it was Dmytro Ivanovych who played a decisive role in the creation of Zaporizhzhya Sich and the final formation of the Cossacks.

Thus, in 1555, a wood-earth fortification was built for them on the island of Mala Khortytsia with the money of the family, frequent donations and small financial assistance as part of the current defense. The garrison was made up of hired Cossacks, some of whom already live here. Despite the small number of their forces, the Cossacks led by Vyshnevetsky, who later received the nickname Baida, in 1556 carried out two successful campaigns on Ochakiv and Isla-Kermen.

In the end, it should be noted that the formation of Cossacks took place over the centuries, its development was fueled by various socio-economic, religious, political and migration processes, from the struggle of Kyivan Rus with nomads and the Mongol invasion, to the crisis of the end of the Middle Ages and the onset of the New Age. Having passed these stages, the Cossacks will later become one of the most important Orthodox forces in the territory of Eastern Europe. Ahead will be campaigns against the Tatars, Turkish cities on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, they will be recruited into European armies, they will rebel against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, wage a civil war and fight for their independence.